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Upregulation of P2X4 receptor (P2X4R), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) in activated microglia is associated with hyperalgesia. Birabresib This study investigated whether nicotine increases pain hypersensitivity by altering the expression of these molecules in microglia. We also examined the role of interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) in this process.
Experiments were performed in BV2 microglial cells. IRF8 was knocked down or overexpressed using lentiviruses harboring a short hairpin RNA targeting IRF8 or an IRF8 overexpression construct, respectively. P2X4R, BDNF, and IL-1β mRNA and protein levels were evaluated by real-time PCR and western blotting, respectively, and BDNF and IL-1β secretion was assessed by ELISA.
Chronic nicotine exposure enhanced the expression of P2X4R, BDNF, and IL-1β in BV2 cells, and stimulated the release of BDNF and IL-1β in the presence of ATP. IRF8 was found to mediate the nicotine-induced increases in BDNF and IL-1β mRNA and P2X4R protein levels in BV2 cells.
Nicotine may increase pain hypersensitivity by promoting the expression of P2X4R, BDNF, and IL-1β through modulation of IRF8 levels in microglial cells.
Nicotine may increase pain hypersensitivity by promoting the expression of P2X4R, BDNF, and IL-1β through modulation of IRF8 levels in microglial cells.Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes motor dysfunction and depression, which hinders the recovery of motor function. Body weight-supported treadmill training (BWSTT) should be considered an effective method for functional rehabilitation after SCI, as it is an efficacious intervention in healthcare with no side effects. Because exercise exerts different effects on motor function recovery and inhibiting depression after SCI, we aimed to determine the appropriate intensity of BWSTT. In this study, fixed durations, frequencies, and percentages of BWSTT with different speeds of BWSTT (7, 15, and 21 cm/s) were chosen to explore the appropriate intensity, which affected the recovery of motor function and antidepressant effects on SCI rats. Based on our results, BWSTT at 21 cm/s produced the best outcomes for motor function recovery and the spinal cord levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB). The antidepressant effects of BWSTT at 15 and 21 cm/s were confirmed based on the increasing sucrose preference, the time spent in the central area and social time, and reduced immobility time. BWSTT at 15 and 21 cm/s improved the modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by decreasing serum corticosterone levels and increasing hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor levels. In addition, higher levels of neurogenesis-related proteins were observed in the hippocampus of the group subjected to BWSTT at 21 cm/s than in the other groups. Thus, BWSTT at 21 cm/s is a potentially favorable treatment that synchronously improves motor function recovery and exerts an antidepressant effect.The brain edema following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) plays a key role in the recovery process. Protocatechuic acid (PCA) has been proved possessing neuroprotection in ICH. Here we tried to explore its value in brain edema after ICH and reveal underlying mechanisms. ICH model was created in C57 mice using collagenase IV. PCA was injected intraperitoneally at 30 mg/kg every 24 h in PCA group. On day 3 after ICH, the water content of hemorrhagic ipsilateral hemisphere in PCA group was significantly reduced compared with vehicle group. AQP4, the main water channel, was remarkably decreased in PCA group. Additionally, ZO-1 and occludin expression were increased in PCA group. The bEnd.3 cells were cultured to understand the effect of PCA on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. Compare to hemin treated group, plus PCA enhanced the expression of HO-1 and Nrf2 nuclear translocation. Furtherly, the overexpression of HO-1, ZO-1, occludin, in the PCA treatment group was inhibited after knockdown of Nrf2. Taken together, our results proved PCA alleviated brain edema and BBB disruption in ICH by promoting the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway.Neuropeptides and peptide hormones affect food-directed motivation, in part, through actions on brain regions associated with reward processing. For instance, previous reports have shown that stimulating glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), an area that directs motivational processes towards food and drugs of abuse, has an anorectic effect. In contrast, µ-opioid receptor activation of the NAc increases feeding, particularly on highly palatable diets. While both neurotransmitters act within the NAc to impact food intake, it is not clear if and how they might interact to affect feeding. Therefore, these experiments tested the effects of NAc injections of the GLP-1 receptor agonist Exendin 4 (EX4) or antagonist Exendin 9 (EX9) on the consumption of a sweetened fat diet, with and without simultaneous µ-opioid receptor stimulation. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 8/group, EX4 or EX9) underwent surgery to place bilateral cannula above the NAc core. After recovery, animals were tested following NAc injections of saline or the µ-opioid agonist [D-Ala, N-MePhe, Gly-ol]-enkephalin (DAMGO) (0.025 µg/side), combined with varying doses of EX4 (0, 0.05, or 0.10 µg/side) or EX9 (0, 2.5, 5.0 µg/side), counterbalanced across 6 testing days. Food and water intake, along with locomotor activity, was monitored for 2 h. Mu-opioid receptor stimulation significantly increased feeding, and this effect was reduced by GLP-1 receptor stimulation. In contrast, GLP-1 antagonism with EX9 altered the dynamics of DAMGO-induced binge-like feeding, extending µ-opioid-induced binging, and increasing food consumption. These findings are the first to demonstrate an interaction between NAc µ-opioid and GLP-1 receptors on palatable food intake.The role of norepinephrine of the hippocampal dentate gyrus in spatial learning and memory alteration induced by chronic restraint stress (CRS, 3 h/day, 6 weeks) was investigated in aged rats. Spatial learning and memory were assessed by the Morris water maze (MWM), and the extracellular concentration of norepinephrine and amplitude of field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) were measured in the dentate gyrus during MWM test in freely-moving rats. Next, the involvement of β-adrenoceptors in spatial learning and memory of CRS rats was examined by microinjection of its antagonist (propranolol) into the dentate gyrus. In addition, we observed the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein and activation of cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) in the dentate gyrus. Compared with the control group, the basal level of norepinephrine, BDNF expression and CREB activation in the dentate gyrus were increased, and the spatial learning and memory abilities were enhanced in CRS rats. In the control group, the norepinephrine concentration and fEPSP amplitude in the dentate gyrus were increased on the second to fourth days of MWM test, and these responses were significantly enhanced in CRS rats.